Open field test The open field test was carried out within a cube manufactured

Moreover, there are key JNK phosphory lation consensus sites within the C term inal region of hnRNP K and HuR. It is possible that kinase phosphorylation of hnRNPs modulates interaction with TDP 43, thus mediating SG association. Alternatively, specific phosphorylation of hnRNPs may simply target them to SGs and due to TDP 43 association オーダー ABT-737 with these hnRNPs, it becomes localized to SGs where hnRNPs are present. Further support for an hnRNP TDP 43 association was found in our model where we showed that JNK inhibition blocked localization of both TDP 43 and hnRNP K to SGs. This is particularly interesting as hnRNP K is phos phorylated by JNK and the phosphorylation site lies within the hnRNP C terminal domain that interacts with TDP 43 in studies on other hnRNPs.<br><br> Further support for this was shown by the fact that there was no specific localization of hnRNP A1 with paraquat induced TDP 43 SGs in our study. Interestingly, the only JNK phosphorylation consensus site on hnRNP A1 is in the N terminal region rather than in the C terminal region that would interact with TDP 43. In addition to these findings, we observed that JNK inhi bition did not decrease AEB071 1058706-35-6 CTF TDP 43 generated by para quat treatment and in fact increased expression. This indicated that JNK is more likely to be controlling loca lization of cytoplasmic TDP 43 to SGs similar to that reported for other kinases and hnRNPs, rather than modulating the formation of CTF TDP 43. Whether it is CTF TDP 43 or full length TDP 43 or both that is aggregating into SGs in this model remains to be seen.<br><br> Due to the loss of nuclear TDP 43 expression and the fact that CTF TDP 43 only accounted for approximately 10% of total TDP 43 on Western blots, strongly sug gested that the SGs probably contained buy AG-014699 full length TDP 43 or a mixture of full length and CTF TDP 43. There must also be additional factors associated with TDP 43 localization to SGs. JNK activation is not speci fic for paraquat and in fact, alternative mitochondrial inhibitors used in this study also induce JNK activation. Phosphorylation of JNK is a common downstream effect of oxidative and other cells stresses. The specifi city of paraquat to induce JNK mediated localization of TDP 43 may be related to specific sub cellular localiza tion of activated JNK or modulation of additional co factors.<br><br> Considerable investigation will be required to delineate the specific processes induced by paraquat that leads to JNK mediated TDP 43 SG accumulation and how these may relate to neurodegenerative diseases such as ALS. While some recent studies have reported a possible association between TDP 43 and TIA 1, these have been demonstrated with transfected cells and no clear evidence of endogenous TDP 43 TIA 1 interaction was identified. Moreover, TIA 1 does not contain JNK consensus sites and there are no reports of JNK control of TIA 1 localization. We believe that the data pre sented here are more consistent with a potential interac tion between TDP 43 and hnRNP K. However, further studies will be required to demon strate specific interaction in this chronic stress model and to determine if mutation of the C terminal JNK phosphorylation site on hnRNP K prevents TDP 43 association with SGs.